Comparison of Public Health and Clinical Research Ethics

Comparison of Public Health and Clinical Research Ethics How Does Public Health Research Ethics Differ From Clinical Research Ethics? Zoheb Rafique INTRODUCTION: The field of biomedical ethics arose in late 1960s in the response to some emerging ethical dilemmas and issues of that era. This field for many years focused on dilemmas generated by the high technology medicine, rather than on the issues of the population health and the ethical problems of public health programs. The discipline Bioethics received the initial stimulus from abuses and issues of human subject’s research, also the emergence of patient’s rights movement, and the drama of high technology medicine. The Research involving human subjects has often been a central ethical issue and problem for the biomedicine for at least hundred (100) years now, and particularly since the World War 2. Just as the public health is broad in the scope, the range of the ethical issues in this field is uncommonly wide, and encompassing the ethics in the public health as well as ethics of public health (1). In past twenty (20) years, the research base of the clinical ethics has gaine d tremendous strength appreciably. However the main research opportunities didn’t come under broad heading of the clinical ethics, but instead through the specific programs such as human genome project and end of life movement (2). In this paper, I will discuss the differences between public health research ethics and clinical research ethics. DISCUSSION: The Public health research ethics include ethics regarding the community participation in the research, while the clinical research ethics include the ethics regarding the clinical patient research. This is major difference between these two scenarios, now I will discuss it in detail. Most of the research has focused on the clinical and the experimental medicine (efficacy, safety and the mechanism of action, and also regulatory issues to general neglect of the public health dimensions. The Public health ethics, which is defined as identification, analysis, and the resolution of the ethical problems occurring in the public health practice and also research, and it, has different domains than those of the medical ethics. The ethical concerns in the public health often relate to dual obligations of the public health professionals to apply and acquire the scientific knowledge that aimed at restoring and also protecting public’s health while respecting the individual autonomy. Ethi cs in the public health involves interplay between safeguarding welfare of individual, as in medicine, and the public health goal of protecting public welfare. Some other ethical concerns in the public health relate to need to ensure just distribution of the public health resources. The Public health ethics has broad scope that includes the ethical and the social issues arising in the health promotion and the disease prevention, the epidemiological research, and also public health practice. The main professional roles of the epidemiology are design and the conduct of the scientific research and public health application of the scientific knowledge. This includes reporting the research results and also maintaining and promoting the health in communities. Also in carrying out the professional roles, the epidemiologists often encounter many ethical issues and some concerns that require the careful consideration. Many of those issues have been highlighted and addressed in literature on ethics in the epidemiology and the public health including the ethics guidelines. The Ethical and the professional norms in the epidemiology have also been clarified in the ethics guidelines for the epidemiologists and often the public health professionals. The Ethics guidelines such as those developed for Industrial Epidemiology Forum, International society for the Environmental Epidemiology, and American college of the Epidemiology also provide useful accounts of the epidemiologists’ obligations to the research participants, employs, society, and colleagues (3). The Epidemiologic studies can provide the descriptive data that can lead scientists later to develop some intervention that can result in the reduction in morbidity and mortality; the health education program can be one of the multiple interventions that together reduce the risks and also ill health. The argument here, however, is that the public health programs, studies, or interventions, must be designed with the awareness of relationship between that program and ultimate reduction in the morbidity and mortality. The Public health programs may result in high employment, as well as some less tangible benefits such as coalition building and strengthening of the communities. Today, the public health practitioner use some tools in addition to the epidemiology to register their work, still aiming primarily on community wide, also typically prospective methods and approaches to improve health. In addition, the practitioners investigate the outbreaks, provide health education, conduct contact tracing, and also other preventive interventions, and organize research related to the public health (4). The Public health agencies require the identifiable health information for conducting different public health activities. The increasing number of the functions, including the public health Surveillance, and outbreak and incident investigations and program implementation, and some direct health services, s uch as the clinical public health activities and services and the research, maintenance, and the storage of the personal health information. The Successful execution of all these functions depends on the data quality and the accessibility. Heightened security is very necessary and paramount to maintain the public confidence; also good health care and it depends on the patients providing the accurate and sensitive information to their care providers in a very timely manner. Placing restrictions on the data acquisition, use, and the disclosure also poses some risks, particularly if those restrictions impede acquisition of the key surveillance data, which would otherwise be used to prevent the disease, investigate the causation, and enable the interventions to protect the exposed population. Additionally, electronic data could potentially permit real time public health Surveillance and also can facilitate the faster emergency response (5). Advances in the science, technology and the bi omedical research have pushed the boundaries of Belmont principles and stimulating the need for the communities to be involved in informed consent process. Changes in the Food and the Drug Administration regulations allow the waivers of the informed consent in life threatening emergencies. The rights of the unconscious participants are assumed to be accorded degree of the protection through mechanism of the â€Å"Community Consultation† which requires the prior consultation by the investigators and the institutional review board with the community representatives and public disclosure to affected community both before and after that research (6). Now I will discuss the clinical research ethics, and we will see how it is different from public health research ethics. Taking into account the sound and the increasing emphasis of recent years that the experimentation in man must precede the general application of the new procedures in the therapy, and also there is reason to fear that these requirements and the resources might be greater than supply of the responsible investigators. Medical schools and the university hospitals are increasingly dominated by the investigators. Every young man knows that he will never be promoted to some tenure post, and to a professorship in a major medical school, unless he has proved himself as an investigator. If the ready availability of the money for conducting the research is added to this fact, one can see how great the pressures are on the ambitious young physicians (7). A taxonomy was developed for the clinical ethics research, based on the method rather than the clinical area. This divided research in different terms of whether it used theoretical or any empirical methods. First, we will see the theoretical methods of the clinical ethics research. Philosophy (e.g., How should the decisions on setting the priorities be made legitimate and also fair?). Law (e.g., what practices in setting the priorities in regional hea lth authority might constitute discrimination?). Policy (e.g., what policy should the governments follow in funding the new technologies in medicine?). Now let’s see the empirical methods of clinical ethics research. Social Sciences (e.g., how do the regional health authorities in the developing countries make the decisions on setting the priorities?). Decision analysis (e.g., How do you trade-off considerations of equity and efficiency in the decisions on setting priorities?). Clinical epidemiology (e.g., what are the criteria used to allocate the liver transplant?). Health services research (e.g., how does the delivery of the cardiac surgery vary by patient gender and ethnicity?). Within empirical research (both in ethics and more generally), there is some growing recognition that the quantitative methods alone are not adequate. Since many of the phenomena examined by the ethics researchers are deeply entwined into fabric of professions, organizations, and the human lives, qualitative methods have begun to play an important role. For example, one investigator performed the observational research on how physicians discuss do-not-resuscitate orders and also advance care planning. The role of the qualitative methods is both increasing and broadening to include not only the content analysis but also grounded theory, the ethnography, and the case study designs. When we review the field of the clinical ethics a decade from now, we hope that the focus will have shifted from the ethics courses, committees and the consultants to an understanding on the part of most physicians and medical students that ethics is an inherent and inseparable part of the good clinical medicine. We hope that clinical ethics will have achieved its rightful place at the interstices of relations between the patients who are sick and physicians who profess to be able to heal and comfort them. Clinical ethics has made progress towards this vision in the past some years. The challenge re mains for the research into ethical issues to become a mainstream concern for the funding agencies around the World. CONCLUSION: In conclusion, it is stated that although public health research and clinical research are different from each other, but ethical dilemmas are faced by both and also they are same in many situations. While considering the public health research ethics, the researcher must show respect for community’s culture, also take community input on the protocol development, and ensure that research is useful to community, and should respect the community’s knowledge and the experience, and ensure that the informed consent is correctly taken before starting any of the research (8). While considering the clinical research ethics, two components are most important, the first being the informed consent. The statement that informed consent has been obtained has very little meaning unless the participant or his/her guardian is capable of understanding what is to be undertaken and unless all of hazards are made clear. If these are not known this, too, has been stated. Secondly, there is more reliable safeguard provided by presence of intelligent, informed, compassionate, conscientious, and responsible investigator. REFERENCES: 1. Daniel Callahan and Bruce Jennings. Ethics and Public Health: Forging a Strong Relationship. American Journal of Public Health 2002; Vol 92, No. 2: 169-176. 2. Peter A Singer Et Al. Clinical Ethics Revisited. BMC Medical Ethics 2001; 2:1. 3. Steven S Coughlin. Ethical issues in epidemiologic research and public health practice. Emerging Themes in Epidemiology. BioMed central 2006; 3:16. 4. Nancy E. Kass. An Ethical Framework for Public Health. Public Health Matters. 5. Julie Myers Et Al. Privacy and Public Health at Risk: Public Health Confidentiality in the Digital Age. American Journal of Public Health 2008; Vol 98, No. 5:793-801. 6. Sandra Crouse Quinn. Protecting Human Subjects: the Role of Community Advisory Boards. American Journal of Public Health 2004; Vol 94, No. 6:918-922. 7. Henry K. Beecher. Ethics and Clinical Research. The New England Journal of Medicine 1966; Vol 274, No. 24:1354-1360. 8. C. Weijer and E.J. Emanuel. Protecting Communities in Biomedical Research. Science. Policy Forum: Ethics 2000; Vol 289:1142-1144.

Personal Response William Butler Yeats Essay

â€Å"William Butler Yeats deals with an interesting variety of subjects and his poetry is full of powerful images and impressive descriptions. Discuss.† Submitted by Hollie McLaughlin. I very much enjoy reading the poetry of William Butler Yeats. What I like about the poetry is the multi-faceted man who emerges. In Inisfree he is the searching, restless 25 year old, looking to nature as a kind of redemptive force. In ‘September 1913’ he is the ardent political critic of the soul-destroying materialism. In ‘Easter 1916’ he is again many-sided, the man who commemorates the great heroes and is able to confess he was wrong about their existence, as well as the man painfully aware of war’s wastage of youthful potential. My favourite, ‘The Wild Swans at Coole’, is Yeats as the disillusioned man whose â€Å"heart is sore†, the man of â€Å"unrequited love†, the man aware of mortality. In ‘Sailing to Byzantium’, Yeats symbolises universal man in search of meaning and permanence amid the transience of life. Who couldn’t be intrigued by this man! In ‘The Lake Isle of Inisfree’, Yeats echoes for me, the longing we all experience at times to escape the urban jungle, the â€Å"pavements grey†. This grim image of oppression is something many people have to face worldwide. A frequent reoccurrence in the poetry of William Butler Yeats is his idea of an idyllic utopia. I quite liked the discrepancy between his two blissful paradises. In ‘The Lake Isle of Inisfree’ he speaks of the bucolic lifestyle found in Ireland. This poem represents Yeats’ Irish heritage. â€Å"I hear it in the deep heart’s core†. The second poem in which Yeats depicts a great fondness of a particular place is ‘Sailing to Byzantium’. It is said that Yeats has always had a profound interest in the Greek civilisation of Byzantium. There is a great contrast presented between these two ideal worlds of his, these being a sort of mythical place in comparison to a mere county Sligo. In my opinion, I believe that Yeats is a master of rhyme. When reading his poems, they tend to flow very easily off your tongue. I find this can make a person who doesn’t particularly like reading poetry, feel it to be quite simple and enjoyable to read. His poems never seem forced, they don’t sound artificial or contrived. It is as if he didn’t even plan out his poetry and  what he was going to write, he just grabbed a pen and allowed the poem to write itself with ease. The poem which I think is the best example for Yeats’ rhythmic quality of writing is ‘The Lake Isle of Inisfree’. Here, I find the rhythm to be almost hypnotic, with the use of long vowel sounds and long slow lines throughout. This hypnotic rhythm carries you away to a dream world, an idyllic utopia. I also find that the last two lines in Yeats’ poem ‘September 1913’ captures his sense of hopelessness and disillusionment with the Ireland of 1913. â€Å"But let them be, they’re dead and gone, they’re with O’Leary in the grave†. I very much enjoyed Yeats’ use of repetition throughout his poetry. From sentence to sentence he often repeats words. Some examples of this may be found when reading the poem ‘The Lake Isle of Inisfree’. â€Å"I will arise and go now and go†¦Ã¢â‚¬  â€Å"And I shall have some peace there for peace comes dropping slow†¦Ã¢â‚¬  â€Å"Was it for this the wild geese spread, for this that all the blood was shed.† Yeats is often famed for adhering to his use of a strong complex personal mythology which he illustrates throughout his poems by the means of symbolism. Symbols appear in a number of Yeats’ poems and this is a thing that I quite like about his poetry, there are deeper meanings behind the words you read. The complexities of these symbols vary between poems but for the most part they are used to portray or add to the portrayal of the transience of time. Firstly a very simple symbolic message can be observed in the poem â€Å"The Wild Swans at Coole†. As Yeats ponders the transience of time and recounts how it has passed him, he exemplifies the messages through the elegant, youthful swans. I believe this is the one exception to the above statement as the metaphor of the swans is very clear cut. â€Å"And scatter wheeling in great broken ring.† â€Å"Upon their clamorous wings.† The swans seem to show little exertion in what they are doing, which Yeats uses to amplify his lack of physical strength and ability as he is but an ageing man. The theme of time and the use of symbols can be seen at numerous points throughout the poem ‘Sailing to Byzantium’. Although admittedly this poem is, to a great extent, more complex than ‘The Wild Swans at Coole’. I feel no shame in admitting that this poem is a lot more difficult to fully comprehend and it took more time to understand the symbols and the meaning of the poem in its entirety. In the title, I think that the use of the word  Ã¢â‚¬Ëœsailing’ doesn’t mean to be sailing literally, but instead he uses it the mode of transport that is sailing as a metaphor of the journey of ageing. This poem represents Yeats’ journey through life, as he is approaching old age. â€Å"An aged man is but a paltry thing, / A tattered coat upon a stick.† Yeats becomes yet again captivated by the idea of aging and symbols present themselves once more in ‘Sailing to Byzantium’ as he looks to solidify himself for eternity. Two symbols are directly related to his obsession with the transience of time and ideas of immortality. First of all there is the â€Å"perne in a gyre†, which, because of its circular nature, will never stop spinning. Circles are also often associated with continuity of life. The second symbol is not mentioned by name, but instead inferred while discussing the products of â€Å"Grecian goldsmiths†. These goldsmiths produced some of the greatest ornaments of all time, which even today are still preserved. Yeats did not want to ever become reincarnated into the body of another living thing, but to remain beautiful and eternal in an object such as a piece of artwork. The symbols Yeats uses are personally my favourite aspects of his poetry as they force you to think deeper into the meaning of what he is actually trying to say or depict. And finally one great thing about the poetry of William Butler Yeats is his use of ordinary, everyday language. I feel that his use of quite simple and non-complex words results in there being a wider range of people reading his poetry. He takes ordinary language and arranges it in a way that gives them an almost poetic rhythm. An example may be seen in the line â€Å"the trees are in their autumn beauty, the woodland paths are dry.† In the poem ‘The Wild Swans at Coole’. In conclusion, I feel that Yeats does deal with a wide range of different topics, with the use of powerful imagery and impressive descriptions. Yeats’ unique pessimism resonates through the well-crafted lines of his work which effectively portray his sometimes equivocal views. The poetry of William Butler Yeats intrigues me greatly, particularly because of his use of symbols throughout and I very much enjoy ruminating on the meanings within.

Alzheimer’s Disease - Physiological Psychology Essay

Diana Beharry PSY350: Physiological Psychology Alzheimer’s Disease Professor Candice Ward March 20, 2011 Introduction In 1901, a fifty one year old woman named Frau Auguste D. was admitted to a psychiatric hospital in Frankfurt, Germany. She had an unusual bunch of symptoms. While she had no history of prior psychiatric illness, her husband had noticed that Frau D. was becoming increasing paranoid, hallucinatory, agitated, disoriented, and having increasing difficulties with language functions and memory. In the hospital, Auguste D. was a patient of Alois Alzheimer, a German neurologist who had a particular interest in the microscopic analysis of brain disorders. He describes the clinical features of Auguste D. condition and†¦show more content†¦Once in the synapses, the impulses triggers the release of chemical messages called neurotransmitters; which then bind to receptors on the receiving cell as the transmission of the impulse repeated again. The message or impulse continues traveling from one neuron to the next throughout the body until it reaches its destination as it rel ays a signal. All of this activity happens in less than a split second and without conscious thought. At the end of this process, the brain has the task of interpreting the message and making the decision as to what to do with this new information. (Carlson, 2011.Pg.45-52) In people with Alzheimer’s, the neurons become disabled. For starters, Alzheimer’s interferes with the neurons ability to produce energy they need to do their work, a process known as metabolism. Neurons derive energy from the oxygen and glucose which is available through the bloodstream. Without this energy, neurons can no longer communicate with each other and carry impulses to other neurons. They also lose the ability to repair themselves, which ultimately causes them to die. Exactly what interferes with the functioning of the neurons is unclear, and the rate at which the disease progresses also varies from one person to another. Neuofibrillary tangles which is a tau protein that gives neurons the ir structure by binding to microtubules in a cell andShow MoreRelatedMusic Is The Most Influential Real Life Application Of Music Psychology971 Words   |  4 Pagesactively participate in the production of music or passively listen to it (Wilson, 1987). Music psychology aims to explain musical behaviour through the understanding of various cognitive processes including perception, performance and memory (Tan, Pfordresher Harrà ©, 2010). The increasing fascination with the relatively new branch of science has generated the question as to whether studying music psychology is useful. 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Essay on The Confederate Battle Flag Heritage or Hate

Xxxxx Xxxxxxx Zzzzzzz Zzzzzzzz English 102 September 12, 2012 The Confederate Battle Flag: Heritage or Hate The Confederate Battle flag is one of the most recognized symbols in the United States. It is not always a welcome symbol in today’s society. Take for instance the state of South Carolina having to remove it from its statehouse on April 12, 2000. The reason it is not always welcome is because people often misinterpret its true meaning. It is not a symbol of hatred but, a symbol of southern pride and honor. The pride and honor of all the men and women who carried it the flag into battle fighting for what they believed in, Southern independence. The reason that people think that the Confederate flag is a racist symbol is†¦show more content†¦In the south the people had a very different way of life. Most were poor farmers with the exception of large plantation owners who were very wealthy. These plantation owners white and black alike used slave labor to grow and harvest their crops. There was almost as many black plantation owners as there were white. In Charlestown, South Carolina there were more than 100 free black men who owned slaves. Slave labor was a big part of the South’s economy. Cotton was the South’s number one cash crop. The only way they could make good money was to sell to the highest bidder. The highest bidder was not always the industries of the North. Most of the time the south would sell their crops to other countries such as England and France, and then in return they would buy their goods from these other countries. That is the reason these countries backed the south in the war. The north did not like the idea that the southern states were trading with foreign countries because they were losing out on a lot of money. The southern states were cutting the north out of the trade cycle completely. So, how does the north stop this? 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Types Of Rubrics Analytic And Holistic - 1396 Words

The Vermont Book Award is a contest that would be best judged using a rubric. A rubric is simply a guide for assessment based on specific criteria. Its purpose is to grade a piece of work by performance and quality. It gives structure to observations and judgements, making it easier to give a subject an overall grade (Bookhart). Not only would the books be easier to grade, the structure of a rubric gives the grader a clear target which encourages the accuracy and fairness of a grade, as well as the advancement of personal learning (Wolf). There are two types of rubrics: analytic and holistic. A holistic rubric is a more general which can be applied to many things (Bookhart). However, I chose to create an analytic rubric because it is more specific, allowing me to produce the best possible analysis and winner for the Vermont Book Award. The most effective personally created rubrics have comprehensible language, a theme, description, and criterion that speaks to you as being significan t (Miller). I believe that the rubric I created follows these aspects directly. The rubric I generated is very specific, organized, and detailed in order to produce the best winner for the Vermont Book Award. I separated it into boxes of what I thought would be the criteria of the best book with a detailed description, the criteria weight, the percent to be earned, and page number, along with three sections to include quotes for the defense of a books earned percent in each category. First,Show MoreRelatedRubric Of Rubric Testing And Evaluation Essay1081 Words   |  5 Pages Abstact This article gives a short communication about rubric testing and evaluation. 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Senior Seminar Research Proposal Free Essays

string(67) " on the corpse and begin looking for a place to begin pupariation\." Introduction Forensic entomology is used to determine such crimes as murder, suicide, and other criminal acts by examining various insects instead of using human tissues. This forensic tool is used to determine the postmortem interval of a corpse and the cause of death of a corpse when all other forms of human evidence (human blood, tissues, hair, etc. ) are not present at the scene. We will write a custom essay sample on Senior Seminar Research Proposal or any similar topic only for you Order Now Forensic entomologists prefer using insects to determine these factors of death because the insects produce similar results as human test materials such as human blood or tissues which yield the best analytical results for the forensic entomologist. The use of forensic entomological evidence has been accepted and used in many courts around the world (Anderson, 1999). The use of this tool in court can support or refute a suspect’s alibi and improves the criminal investigation against the suspect (Anderson, 1999). Even though forensic entomology is an efficient tool to use in criminal investigations there are some drawbacks to this analytical tool. Such disadvantages include improper collection of entomological evidence and improper analysis of insects after collection, resulting in incorrect entomological results and a possible false conviction of a suspect. The proposed research of this paper focused on insects being affected by different concentrations of ethanol during natural insect development and also focused on the detection of ethanol in insects using gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GCMS) to determine if insects were significantly affected by ethanol exposure. The research also focused on the exposure of ethanol to the insects and how this exposure affected PMI (postmortem interval) determination. Forensic entomology is a commonly used tool to determine cause and time of death by examining various characteristics of insects that are collected at the crime scene. Such characteristics include size of the insect(s) and the life cycle stage of the insect collected. Forensic entomology becomes the most accurate and sometimes the only tool available for determining time of death, especially after 72 hours (Anderson and VanLaerhoven, 1996). Forensic entomology can also determine if a body has been moved from place to place, determine where the death occurred, determine the presence of various types of drugs and toxins present (if any), wound location, and determine who the suspect and victim are due to the presence of certain insects on the body (Grisales, et al. 2010). Background/Literature Review There are five levels of decomposition identified by a forensic entomologist when conducting an entomological investigation which include fresh, bloated, active, advanced, and remains (Grisales, et al. , 2010). These stages of decomposition are important to a forensic entomologist because insects appear on a corpse periodically throughout the decompositi on cycle which therefore determines the time of death of a corpse. During these levels of decomposition insects begin to reach the corpse either by flying (adult flies) or by burrowing through the ground (pupae). Some insects can also reach the corpse by hatching from eggs (larvae) that were laid on the corpse after death. The fresh stage of decomposition involves a drop in body temperature and the appearance of very few flies on the corpse. The insects that are collected are typically larvae and are collected from the mouth of the corpse. The bloated stage of decomposition involves a significant increase in the body weight of a corpse due to rainfall exposure. The insects that are collected at this stage of decomposition are larvae found on the back, head, ears, and anus of the corpse (Grisales, et al. 2010). The active decay stage of decomposition involves fly larvae feeding on a corpse which significantly lowers the body weight of the corpse and an increased amount of fly larvae found in the intestines/ organs of the corpse (Grisales, et al. , 2010). The advanced stage of decomposition involves the fluctuation of body temperature depending on the location of the corpse and an even bigger d ecrease in body weight due to increased consumption of body tissues by fly larvae (Grisales, et al. , 2010). There is an increase in adult flies that are collected at this stage of decomposition. In the last stage of decomposition, remains, there is no continued change of the corpse and the presence of insects found decreases (Grisales, et al. , 2010). The stages of decomposition and the insects present at these stages are also used to determine the postmortem interval (PMI) of a corpse. PMI, or postmortem interval, provides important detail of situations that occurred before time of death in cases of homicide and untimely death (Byrd and Castner, 2001). Arthropods that are found on the corpse can determine the length of egg to fly transformation then to the recovered developmental stage (Gennard, 2007). The best arthropods to use are the oldest ones that were yielded from eggs when the larvae were first deposited on the corpse because they have the longest feeding time on the corpse which allows them to fully develop and retain any evidence from the corpse much longer; this will produce a more accurate PMI. Such information can help to identify both the criminal and the victim by eliminating the suspects and connecting the deceased with other individuals. The predictable physical and chemical consequences of death are usually the most reliable PMI indicators, which means knowing what an insect should look like at which developmental level to determine when a dead body became a corpse (Henssge et al. 1995). PMI is also associated with the succession rate of various insects which is another tool that is used to determine the time of death of a corpse. The succession rate includes information about the time elapsed between death and the presence of a particular arthropod or insect species and stage (Byrd and Castner, 2010). A dead body will go through very recognizable decomposition stages (physical, biological, and chemical changes) that attract various types of arthropods in each decomposition stage that are needed to determine the succession rate (Monthei, 2009). The most common succession rate estimated by an investigator is the age of larvae and the time interval between death and the arrival of larvae on the corpse (Byrd and Castner, 2010). The knowledge of what insects are supposed to be present and absent based on the season also helps to determine PMI. Calculation of PMI involves five different arthropod life stages (eggs, larvae, pupae, adult, and carcass) for flies when collecting insects from corpses. The egg stage of the fly is characterized by the laying of between 150-200 eggs, with the exception of some flies lying between 2000-3000 eggs, found on the body in cluster form within areas that provide protection, moisture, and food (Gennard, 2007). Fly eggs are typically shiny and white; the eggs have a similar appearance to that of a grain of rice. The reason for specific placement of eggs on a decomposing body is the fact that the body contains a high quality of nutrients which are used as a feeding source for the fly eggs to grow, as well as the influence of growth on other species of insects that feed on the decomposing body. The larval stage of the fly species is characterized into three stages (L1, L2, and L3) which correspond to the number of slits present on the backs of the larvae (Gennard, 2007). These slits are used by entomologists to determine what stage of life the larvae are in when collected. In the third larval stage, where larvae are the largest, the larvae stop feeding on the corpse and begin looking for a place to begin pupariation. You read "Senior Seminar Research Proposal" in category "Free Research Paper Samples" Pupariation is the final stage of development in metamorphosis into the adult stage and is generally called the larval post-feeding stage (Gennard, 2007). Pupariation typically doesn’t take place on the corpse because insects in this stage prefer to be in a cool, dark place or underground, if possible. In some instances of fly larvae in pupariation, the insects were shown to pupate on the corpse. The adult stage, or the end of the life cycle, is initiated by the arthropod pushing itself out of the puparium case and once the adult fly is free from the puparium case, the insects make their journey upward through the soil. Once the adult fly has reached the top of the soil the insects release their waste and expand their wings to make their way to other corpses or decomposing material. The adult stage may be the final stage of the life cycle but the carcass of these adult flies can also be collected as evidence along will the carcasses of arthropods in each life stage. Entomotoxicology Entomotoxicology is the analysis of insects and insect remains for the presence of toxins that may have been present in the corpse before death (Goff and Lord, 1994). Detection of various toxins and controlled substances in insects found on decomposing human remains has contributed to the determination of both cause and manner of death by determining what times of toxins were present in the corpse before death (Lord 1990, Goff and Lord 1994, Nolte et al. , 1992). Entomotoxicology also serves as an alternative analysis tool to determine the presence of toxins or cause of death when certain specimens aren’t available for collection, such as human blood or tissues. The toxicological analysis of insect biological materials is conducted in the same manner as the toxicological analysis of human biological materials, making cause of death determination more accurate (Definis- Gojanovic, 2007). Many different species of arthropods, such as flesh flies and blowflies, are used when conducting an entomotoxicological analysis and these arthropods are used to determine the PMI or time before death. The use of entomotoxicology has many advantages, which includes determination of time before death (PMI) and identification of suspect, but this analytical tool also has several disadvantages. One disadvantage includes the issue of recording the exact temperature of the insects because if the information is incorrect then the outcome of the PMI will also be incorrect. Another disadvantage of this analytical tool is the fact that it is fairly new in the forensic science field so if an individual isn’t educated on how to use the technique then valuable entomological evidence related to the case may be lost. Lastly, if proper collection of entomological evidence isn’t conducted properly, the loss of highly important evidence relating to time of death and cause of death could be lost. Cause of death is usually determined by various types of toxins that are detected in the insect after an entomotoxicological analysis was conducted. Issues with Determination of PMI The determination of PMI can be affected by multiple factors but only two will be discussed in this research proposal which include: temperature and ethanol. Temperature involves the rise or fall of temperature to such a high or low that affects the growth or succession rate of insects. Air temperature and exposure to sunlight will raise the corpse temperature which will also increase the insect succession rate. Temperature can also be influenced by such weather conditions as rain, sun, snow, and wind which can greatly affect the amount of entomological evidence collected (insects) and the outcome of a legal investigation (Sharanowski et al. , 2008). Alcohol, or ethanol, is one of the oldest abused drugs in the world that is readily available and the most commonly abused drug in Western societies (Stripp, 2007). Ethanol is a product of fermentation due to yeast cells acting on sugars from fruits and grains that produces a clear, volatile liquid that is soluble in water (Stripp, 2007). Once ethanol enters the blood stream orally it travels in the blood into other tissues. The ethanol travels to tissues with greater water content because these tissues will receive greater ethanol distribution. The ethanol concentration will be different in both the corpse and the insects due to the different water amounts found in each species (insects and corpse). The rate at which ethanol is eliminated from the body is another important factor to a forensic entomologist because this can determine the time at which the individual started drinking. The focus of this experiment will involve different concentration levels of ethanol and the effects on the growth rate of the fly species Sarophagidae (flesh flies). Proposed Research The broad, long-term objectives that this research paper is focused on determining whether ethanol can affect the growth rate of entomological evidence and how much ethanol can be detected in the insects. This research is also being conducted in an attempt to make a comparison to the other research experiments to see if the results concerning growth rate of insects exposed to such drugs as morphine or heroin are similar or different to the growth rate results of insects exposed to ethanol. This research paper includes four specific aims that was accomplished as a way to make the broad objective a more manageable piece that could was easier to manipulate. Specific aim one included determining whether ethanol could be found in both test fly species after feeding on the ethanol infused beef liver. Specific aim two involved determining which concentrations of ethanol produced the most significant changes in the flies. Specific aim three involved tracking the growth rate of the fly species that were exposed to the ethanol infused beef livers (test subjects) and those who were not (control). Specific aim four involved observing any change in the growth rate data from the fly species test subjects that were exposed to three specific concentrations of ethanol. These specific aims will be used in sequential order as a way of getting closer to solving the broad objective. Experimental Methods Overview The research experiment hypothesized there would be significant changes in the growth rate of the fly species when exposed to the three specific concentrations of ethanol. The research experiment also predicted that there would be obvious physical changes in the flies when exposed to beef livers infused with specific concentrations of ethanol at different stages of life. The experimental design constructed for this experiment involves the fly species Sarophagidae (flesh flies) feeding on beef livers infused with ethanol over a period of eight to twenty-one days which is the general life cycle for flesh flies. The three beef livers had varying concentrations of ethanol (25 ug, 50 ug, and 100 ug) injected into them that the flesh flies were exposed to. The control group for the experiment was hand massaged with deionized water as a way to keep liquid consistency amongst the groups. At the end of the experiment, the insects were collected into a test tube and then exposed to GCMS or gas chromatography mass spectrometry in an attempt to determine the presence of ethanol in the test subject (insects). The insects were also analyzed for any type of stunted or heightened growth in regards to a normal fly life cycle. This analytical test was able to show that there was ethanol present in the fly species. Experimental Variables The independent variable in this experiment is the specific concentration of ethanol that is distributed amongst the three beef livers. The dependent variable in this experiment is the growth rate of both species after exposure to ethanol as well as the specific ethanol concentrations. The controlled group was the fly larvae that were not exposed to ethanol. The other controlled variables of this experiment were the 45 degrees Farenheit (temperature) the beef livers were maintained at and the amount of beef used (8 oz. as the feeding substrate for the fly species. The experimental groups in this experiment were three larvae groups exposed to ethanol and the control group was a larvae group not exposed to ethanol. Procedures/ Measurements The following experimental design was adapted from a previous research study conducted by George et al. , 2009. Three beef livers weighing 8 oz. each were prepared using the corresponding ethanol concentrations for the three experimental groups of the fly species tested (Experimental Group Two- 25 ug, Experimental Group Three- 50 ug, and Experimental Group Four- 100 ug). 0 mL of deionized water was distributed evenly into the control group (EG 1) to maintain liquid consistency amongst all groups. A cluster of fly larvae for the three experimental groups was collected and distributed evenly amongst the three experimental groups (2-4) as well as the control group. The beef livers were contained in a small plastic tub and refrigerated at a temperature of 45 degrees Farenheit when the beef livers were not being used to discourage spoiling of beef liver as well as to avoid evaporation of ethanol. The growth rate of the test subjects from both fly species exposed to ethanol is measured (any alteration in growth rate is the factor that is being measured) over a period of three weeks. At the end of three weeks, or longer if necessary, all of the perished insects from the experiment were collected for analysis using GCMS (gas chromatography mass spectrometry) to determine the presence or absence of ethanol in the insects. Material List Deionized water Ethanol solution Fly larvae of Sarophagidae (flesh flies) Four beef livers (8 oz. each) Graduated cylinder GCMS machine Microscope Pipette Plastic tubs Refrigerator References Anderson, G. S. (1999). Wildlife Forensic Entomology: Determining Time of Death in Two Illegally Killed Black Bear Cubs. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 44(4): 856-859 Anderson, G. S. and Van Laerhoven, S. L. (1996). Initial Studies on Insects Succession on Carrion in Southwestern British Columbia. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 41: 617-625 Brown, G. , Fuke, C. , Pounder, D. J. , Robertson, L. and Sadler, D. W. (1997). Barbiturates and Analgesics in Calliphora vicina Larvae. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 42(3): 481-485 Byrd, J. H. and Castner, J. L. (2001). Forensic Entomology: The Utility of Arthropods in Legal Investigations. CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL Definis- Gojanovic, M. , Britvic, D. , Kokan, B. , and Sutlovic, D. (2007). Drug Analysis in Necrophagous Flies and Human Tissues. Arh Hig Rada Toksikol, 58: 313-316 George. K. A. , Archer, M. S. , Green, L. M. , Conlan, X. A. , and Toop, T. (2009). Effect of morphine on the growth rate of Calliphora stygia (Fabricus) (Diptera: Calliphoridae) and possible implications for forensic entomology. Forensic Science International (Online), 193(1): 21-25 Gennard, D. E. (2007). Forensic Entomology: An Introduction. Wiley: England Goff, M. L. and Lord, W. D. (1994). Entomotoxicology : A new area for forensic investigation. American Journal of Forensic Medicine and Pathology, 15:51-57 Grisales, D. , Ruiz, M. , and Villegas, S. (2010). Insects associated with exposed decomposing bodies in the Colombian Andean Coffee Region. Revista Brasileira de Entomologia, 54(4): 637-644 Henssge, C. B. , Knight, B. , Krompecher, T. , Madea, B. , and Nokes, L. (1995). The estimation of the time since death in the early postmortem period. Arnold: London Lord, W. D. (1990). Case histories of the use of insects in investigations. In Entomology and death: A procedural guide, ed. E. P. , Catts and N. H, Haskell. Clemson, SC: Joyce’s Print Shop, 9-37 Monthei, D. R. (2009). Entomotoxicological and Thermal Factors Affecting the Development of Forensically Important Flies. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Virginia Nolte, K. B. , Lord, W. D. , and Pinder, R. D. (1992). Insect Larvae Used to Detect Cocaine Poisoning in a Decomposed Body. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 37(4): 1179-1185 Sharanowski, B. J. , Walker, E. G. , and Anderson, G. S. (2008). Insect succession and decomposition patterns on shaded and sunlit carrion in Saskatchewan in three different seasons. Forensic Science International, 179: 219-240 Stripp, R. A. (2007). Drugs of Abuse. The Forensic Aspects of Poisons. Chelsea House: New York How to cite Senior Seminar Research Proposal, Essays

Comparing and contrasting peter the great and Louis XIV free essay sample

Firstly,they were both autocrats,in that all decisions of state had to be approved by them. We will write a custom essay sample on Comparing and contrasting peter the great and Louis XIV or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Secondly,they both wanted to curb the power of an ambitious nobility-However,they achieved this aim differently; Louis made his court at Versailles the centre of power,so the nobility had to spend all their time there if they wanted to have any Influence. This kept them away from their own provincial power bases,making it hard for them to plot against the king. Peter on the other hand tortured and murdered any nobles he suspected of disloyalty. The main difference between the two was that Louis was ruling a cultural advanced,modern state Russia under Peter was still very backward compared to major European states,so Peter worked hard to modernize Russia. Finally,both built up strong armies and used them for territorial expansion, thus Increasing the prestige of their countries. Firstly,they ere both autocrats,in that all decisions of state had to be approved by them. Secondly,they both wanted to curb the power of an ambitious nobility. However,they achieved this alma differently; Louis made his court at Versailles have any influence. This kept them away from their own provincial power bases,making it hard for them to plot against the Klan. Peter on the other hand for territorial expansion, thus increasing the prestige of their countries. Comparing and contrasting peter the great and Louis XIV free essay sample Firstly,they were both autocrats,in that all decisions of state had to be approved by them. Secondly,they both wanted to curb the power of an ambitious nobility. However,they achieved this aim differently; Louis made his court at Versailles the centre of power,so the nobility had to spend all their time there If they wanted to have any Influence. This kept them away from their own provincial power bases,making it hard for them to plot against the Klan.Peter on the other hand ordered and murdered any nobles he suspected of disloyalty. The mall difference between the two was that Louis was ruling a cultural advanced,modern state Russia under Peter was still very backward compared to major European states,so Peter worked hard to modernize Ursula. Affably,both built up strong armless and used them for territorial expansion, thus Increasing the prestige of their countries.Fluster,they were both autocrats,in that all decisions of state had to be approved by he centre of power,so the nobility had to spend all their time there if they wanted to have any influence-This kept them away from their own provincial power bases,making it hard for them to plot against the king. We will write a custom essay sample on Comparing and contrasting peter the great and Louis XIV or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Peter on the other hand tortured and murdered any nobles he suspected of disloyalty. The main difference worked hard to modernize Russia. Finally,both built up strong armies and used them for territorial expansion, thus increasing the prestige of their countries.